by Sara al-Garnatiyya
One of my SCA heraldic research projects has been looking at languages, names and titles in the Indian subcontinent. The work below is the result of one such dive.
Introduction
This is extended documentation for titles of nobility that were used in various cultures and kingdoms throughout the recorded history of the Indian sub-continent. As such, this is not a deep dive into the history or the various cultures of the Indian sub-continent. The primary aim is to examine the titles of nobility used in some of the major cultures in the pre-1650 CE Indian sub-continent with an aim to rounding out the Alternative Titles List used in the SCA[1].
This work will focus on titles that are found within the written records. In many cases, it is tricky to assign exact correspondences to western European titles, so a description of the type of noble it applied to is provided. In all cases, I use the ISO 15919 transliteration system[2] to translate between the original language and the Latin alphabet. It should be noted that this work is by no means comprehensive. The written historical records of the Indian subcontinent are myriad, and the Subcontinent has played host to over 100 empires of various linguo-social backgrounds since approximately 2500 BCE.[3]
The earliest written records are in a classical Indo-Iranian language called Sanskrit, which is found in a written form by 1500BCE[4]. Sanskrit became the prevalent language throughout the northern parts of the Indian sub-continent via the migration of various Indo-Iranian tribes[5]. By 400-350 BCE, the grammar of classical Sanskrit had been codified by Pānini[6] in his Ashtādhyāyī treatise on Sanskrit grammar.
As the Indo-Iranian tribes moved southwards into the Indian sub-continent, they encountered speakers of what are now termed Dravidian languages[7]. The Dravidian languages are not related to Sanskrit, or the other Indo-European languages.[8] However, the continued co-existence of the two has led to modern languages having influences of both, although most languages are based on one or the other. Further invasions of the subcontinent from Persia, Turkey, and central Asia, added their own lingual mixes.
Periods and Eras in Indian History
Figure 1 shows an approximate timeline of the periods and entities covered in this document. Much like this document, this is not a comprehensive timeline, but exists to give the reader an approximate time line for when the various titles were used.
Figure 1: A brief timeline of Indian History
Later Vedic Period
These titles can be dated to between 1200-600 BCE. During this time, the Rigveda (the oldest of the sacred Hindu texts that are collectively termed the Veda[9]) were codified[10]. Many of the titles we find codified in the Rigveda were used in the Kuru Empire, which was mainly centered in Northern India – what is now Haryana, Delhi, and western Uttar Pradesh[11].
Passages in the Rigveda provide several terms for “King” during this time period, many of which were used interchangeably, but some had more religious connotations than others[12]. These are shown in Appendix I. I have also added commentary around each synonym, including the root words where needed (many of these are compound nouns), and the connotation of each. Table 1 shows a compiled list of noble titles and their approximate meanings. I would propose that Table 1 become part of the Alternative Titles list. The titles listed in Table 1 are ones for which I was able to find corresponding feminine terms in the literature.
Table 1: Titles found in the Rigveda and approximate translations.
| Male Title | Meaning | Female Title | Meaning |
| Samrāj[13] | Imperial Lord/KingThis comes from “sam” meaning “imperial” and “rāja” meaning “king”[14] | Samrājni/Samrājyi[15] | Imperial Lady (Consort)/Imperial Lady (Regnant). This comes from “sam” meaning “imperial” and “rajni” or “rajyi” meaning “queen” |
| Rājaputra[16] | Prince. This is a compound noun meaning “King’s Son”.” Rāja” means “King[17]”, while “putra” means “son”[18] | Rājaputri | Princess. This is a compound noun meaning “King’s Daughter”, with “putri” being the feminization of “putra”. |
| Rājan[19] | Chieftain (of a smaller area). This also gets used interchangeably with “Raja” and can mean “King” | Rājani[20] | Consort of the Rājan |
| Rājanya[21] | Nobleman | ||
| Dampati[22] | Head of an extended household (Peer) | Dammaha[23] | Head of an extended household (Peer) |
The Sangam Period in South India
The Sangam Period is a term applied to a period of history in southern India between 200BCE to 200CE[24]. The period is named for assemblies of scholars and poets who produced the earliest known works of Tamil-language literature[25]. These assemblies were known as “sangam” and during them, they chronicled the history of the region, as well as producing works of poetry and literature. There are three eras of Sangam described in the literature: the Head Sangam period[26], the Middle Sangam Period[27], and the Third Sangam[28] era. Most scholars agree that the first two Sangam periods are ahistorical, and little to no actual literature from the eras survived[29]; thus, this discussion is limited to the evidence found in the literature of the Third Sangam era.
South India during this period was divided into three major kingdoms[30] — the Cheras, the early Cholas, and the Pāndyas. These kingdoms are described in the literature as being “equal” kingdoms that ruled what is now modern-day Tamil Nadu between them. Within each kingdom, a hierarchical social structure that included chieftains and other local nobles, existed. Many of the titles presented here are taken from the literature of this time-period, and the historicity has been confirmed by archeological finds[31]. The literature gives the reader insight into the socio-economic structure of the region and gives us a source for early Tamil-language titles. As with the earlier Sanskrit literature, there are many synonyms given, some of which have more religious connotations than others. Table 2 shows the synonyms and contexts for “king” found in the Sangam-era literature; these synonyms are from different dialects of the early Tamil language[32].
Table 2: Old Tamil synonyms for “king”
| vēntu[33] | King/kingship |
| vēntan/ vēntanr[34] | Crowned Monarch |
| maṉṉaṉ[35] | “Only King” |
| aracaṉ[36] | King |
| kō[37] | King: this also means “cow” – as borrowed from the Sanskrit, and can also mean “father”[38] |
| iṟai[39] | King |
Additionally, the Tamil literature also provides titles used for smaller chieftains, approximately equivalent to the role of a baron in the SCA. Many titles are however context dependent, and sometimes the titles are used interchangeably in the literature. These are shown in Table 3
Table 3: Tamil titles for lesser nobles
Unfortunately, I am unable to find equivalent feminine terms, and the literature here is unclear as to what was used as a title/form of address versus as a noun.
The Chola Empire
The Chola Empire spans approximately 4 centuries from 850-1270 CE, and controlled most of the South Indian peninsula, including what is now known as Tamil Nadu, northern Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.[43],[44] However, there is a paucity of records outside of the central Tamil region[45], so this work focuses only on the Tamil-language titles. During the reigns of Rājēndra I and Rājarāja, the Chola empire expanded significantly, and the kings took on new titles to reflect his status[46], while keeping earlier titles also. Table 4 lists the titles found for the Chola Kings and Emperors.
Table 4: Royal titles in the Chola Empire
| Title | Meaning |
| Chakravartigal[47] | Emperor. This is used in many cases to mean the ideal secular ruler of the world |
| Rājaśraya[48] | King of Kings. This is a compound word combining “Rāja” meaning king, and “raya” as a modified version of “raja” indicating a possessive. |
| Mahādevī[49] | Queen. This is compound noun that consists of “Mahā” meaning “great[50]” and “devī” which translates in this case to “consecrated wife of a king”[51] |
| Rājakēsari[52] | Crown Prince. This is actually a compound noun that translates roughly to “the King’s lion”, with lion being used metaphorically to refer to the Heir. |
The Gupta Kings
The Guptas ruled much of India between approximately 270[53] – 550[54] CE. The exact origin of the Gupta dynasty is unclear, with some sources suggesting Bihār[55], while others suggest Punjab or Bengal[56]. It is known that they were Brāhmanical Hindus[57], and indeed most of the records that we find are written in Sanskrit, using the Brāhmi script[58], which is a precursor to the precursors of the modern Devanāgari – the script in which modern Sanskrit and Hindi are written.[59]
The Gupta dynasty was started by Mahārāja Śri-Gupta – a vassal king of the Lichchhavi dynasty, who due to his vassal status took the title “Mahārāja”[60], meaning “Great King”[61] During the reign of Chandragupta I, the Kingdom became an independent Kingdom, and Chandragupta took on the title of “Mahārājadhirāja[62]” (meaning Great King of Kings[63]). During both these time periods, the Chief Queen was referred to as “Mahādevī”[64] The male heir to the throne was designated by the title “Yuvarāja”[65]. It is unclear as to whether the Yuvarāja’s consort would be termed the “Yuvarāni” (by feminizing raja), or as Yuvadevī” (following the pattern of Mahādevī).
The Gupta Empire was divided into distinct provinces, each with its own local governor, in fealty to the King. In many cases, these governors were princes of the royal blood, called Kumārāmātyas.[66] Governors not of the royal blood were termed Uparikas.[67]
There was also a system of apprenticeship and learning from learned elders. These teachers were known as Āchārya [68] (male) and Upadhyāya (female)[69]. A list of proposed titles is given in Table 5.
Table 5: Titles used in the Gupta Empire
| Male Title | Female Title | Meaning |
| Mahārāja | Mahādevī | Vassal King/Queen, approximately equivalent to a Territorial Prince/ess. This is a compound noun consisting of “Mahā”, meaning “great”[70], and either “raja” meaning “king”[71] or “devī” in the sense of the consecrated wife of a king[72] |
| Mahārājadhirāja | Mahādevī | Sovereign King/Queen. The compound noun Mahārājadhirāja consists of “Mahārāja” with the same meaning as above and “adhirāja” being the superlative |
| Yuvarāja | Yuvarāni/Yuvadevī | Crown Prince/ess. This literally translates to “young king/queen”, with “yuva” meaning “young”[73] |
| Uparika | Regional Governor ~ Baron/ess | |
| Āchārya | Upadhyāya | Learned Teacher ~ Peer |
The Muslim Age
The Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim vassal state of the `Abbasids from 1206 CE to 1526 CE[74]. The Delhi Sultanate was, in theory, a vassal state of the `Abbasids, who were the legal sovereigns of the realm and bore the title “Caliph”[75]. It should be noted that the usage of “Caliph” implied religious and secular legitimacy to at least the adherents of Sunni Islam[76]. While the `Abbasid Caliphate was in decline around the time of the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate (The `Abbasids were defeated by the Mongols in 1258[77]), the fiction of being in fealty to the Caliphate was maintained until the rise of the Mughal Empire, and the beginning of the reign of Humayun in 1530.[78]
Thus, the de-facto sovereign was termed the “Sultan”[79], and his primary queen, the “Malikah-i-Jahan”[80]. Additionally, the Queen Mother was termed “Makhdumah-i-Jahan”[81].
The terms “Malik” and “Malikka” were used for a governor of a province,[82] and what is approximately equal to a Landed Baron in the SCA, was termed a “Naib-i-Mamlikat”[83] or “Naib-i-mulk[84]”
Additionally, the nobles were divided into three distinct ranks: “Khan”, “Malik”, and “Amir”, with Khan being the highest rank, and Amir, the lowest.[85] Additionally, Amir was also used as a generic title to indicate any noble officer, whether military or civil[86].
Translating this to an SCA context, the titles and ranks can be approximately equated as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Titles used in the Delhi Sultanate
| Male Title | Female Title | SCA Equivalent |
| Sultan | Malikah-i-Jahan/Sultan | King/Queen Consort/Queen Regnant |
| Naib-i-mulk | Naiba-i-mulk[87] | Landed Baron/Baronness |
| Khan | Khatum[88] | Peer |
| Malik | Malika[89] | Territorial Coronet |
| Amir | Amira[90] | Someone who has an award of arms/generic title of nobility |
Mughal India
The Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent was founded by Babur in 1526 with the defeat of the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the first Battle of Panipat.[91] The Mughals were descended from the Timurids – a Persian-Turco-Mongol dynasty,[92] who all bore the post-nominal title Mirza – a shortened form of Amirzada to indicate their descent from Amir Temür. The female members of the dynasty bore the post-nomial title Begum to indicate that they were of noble blood also.[93] When Babur became the autonomous ruler of the Mughal Empire in India, post Battle of Panipat, he also took on the title of Pādishah, meaning “Emperor”[94], as a prenominal title. In this context, a post-nomial title appeared to indicate “being of royal descent” versus the prenominal Mirza being used to indicate a son of the ruler.[95] Babur’s principal wife took on the title of Pādishah Begum.[96]
Babur, and later Akbar, while expanding the Mughal Empire also paid heed to local ruling structures and incorporated those structures into the administration of the Empire. Thus, local Hindu princes, titled as Rāja[97], and Rajput landowners, known as Thakurs[98] were also incorporated into the Royal hierarchy. A Raja would correspond approximately to a Territorial Prince, while a Thakur would correspond to a Landed Baron. Nobles of the royal blood were also termed Khānazad[99]. Lastly, much as in the Delhi Sultanate, Amir was used as a generic title of nobility[100]. Table 7 shows the titles used in the Mughal Empire and their approximate equivalents.
Table 7: Titles used in the Mughal Empire
| Male Title | Female Title | Meaning |
| Pādishah | Pādishah Begum | King/Queen |
| Mirza | Begum | Prince/Princess |
| Rāja | Rāni | Territorial Prince/Princess |
| Thakur | Thakurani | Territorial Baron/Baroness |
| Amir | Amira | Generic title of nobility |
Appendix I – Synonyms for “king” found in the Rigveda
These synonyms are found as part of the Rigveda and were used in many cases to refer to a king or chieftain. These are listed here with information about meaning and usage where appropriate.
| Synonym | Notes | Synonym | Notes |
| adhipáti | This is a compound noun, meaning “High Lord”. It consists of “adhi”[101] meaning “high” or “over”, and “páti” meaning “lord” or “master”. Páti also translates to “husband” and can have some religious connotations[102] | adhirāja | This is a compound noun, meaning “High King”.It consists of “adhi” meaning “high” and a shortened form of “rājan”, the Sanskrit word for “King”.[103] c.f. “rex” in Latin |
| Uttama | This is a superlative that means “highest”[104]. It is often used in reference to members of the Brahmin caste. | ekarāj | This is a compound noun meaning “Only King”.It consists of “eka” meaning “one”, or “solitary”[105], and a shortened form of “rājan” |
| ksatrapátijyestha | This is a compound noun that translates to “King, the Eldest”. In this context, there are two parts to the noun – “ksatrapáti” and “Jyestha”. “Ksatrapáti” is itself a compound noun that translates to “King”, consisting of the words “ksatra” meaning “parasol”[106], which is often seen as an auspicious symbol in Hinduism[107], and “páti” once again meaning “Lord”.Jyestha is a Sanskrit word meaning “eldest”[108]. Jyeshtha is also the name of a Goddess, regarded as the goddess of misery and bad fortune[109]. She is the elder sister and antithesis of Laxami, the goddess of good fortune[110].This is a title that should be used with extreme caution due to the nature of its religious symbology. | ||
| paramesthin | “Supreme”[111]. It is often used in a religious context in Hinduism and Jainism[112]. | Puraetr/ purahsthätr | “Vanguard” or “one who goes before”[113] |
| bhagin | “co-heir”[114] | bhoja | This is a Sanskrit word that relates to the king of the Bhoja people[115] |
| mahārāja | This is a compound Sanskrit noun, that consists of the word “mahā” which means “great/mighty”[116] and “rāja” meaning “king”[117]. This is used as a general term for king throughout Indian history | rājan | This is another Sanskrit word for “King” (from which “rāja” is derived)[118]. This word should be used with caution however, as it is often applied to Gods. |
| rāstriri | A female ruler — queen[119] | vasistha | “Most excellent”[120]. This is also the name of one of the “Seven Great Vedic Sages”[121], and should probably not be used. |
| Samrāj | A universal or supreme ruler[122]. | Sarvarāj/ svarāj | King of All[123]. This is also noted as an epithet for a supreme being, and so should not be used in an SCA context. |
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[1] https://heraldry.sca.org/regs.html
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_15919
[3] See https://timemaps.com/history/south-asia-1000bc/ for example.
[4] Roger D. Woodard, Roger D. (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas, pp. 1–2.
[5] Pinkney, Andrea Marion (2014). “Revealing the Vedas in ‘Hinduism’: Foundations and issues of interpretation of religions in South Asian Hindu traditions”. In Bryan S. Turner; Oscar Salemink (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia. Routledge. pp. 38.
[6] Staal, Frits (1965), “Euclid and Pāṇini”, Philosophy East and West, 15 (2): 99–116, JSTOR 1397332
[7] Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003), The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge University Press
[8] ibid
[9] Jamison, Stephanie W., Brereton, Joel P. (2014) The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Vol. 1–3, Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-937018-4.
[10] Witzel, Michael (1997), “The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu”, in Michael Witzel (ed.), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora, vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 257–348,
[11] Pletcher, Kenneth (2010), The History of India, The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 9781615301225
[12] Rau, Wilhelm (1957) Staat und Gesellschaft im alten Indien. p72
[13] Witzel, M (1995) Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State.p19
[14] Monier-Williams p1181
[15] ibid
[16] Rau, Wilhelm (1957) Staat und Gesellschaft im alten Indien. p68
[17] Monier-Williams p872
[18] Ibid p632
[19] ibid
[20] ibid
[21] Ibid p632
[22] Witzel, M (1995) Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State.p20
[23] ibid
[24] Chopra P.N./ Ravindran T.K. & Subrahmanian N. (2010) History of South India (Ancient, Medieval & Modern)
[25] Zvelebil, Kamil (1974), Tamil Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Vol. X
[26] Sen, Sailendra Nath (1992). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. Motilal Banarsidass. p.204.
[27] Daniélou, Alain (February 2003). A Brief History of India. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781594777943.
[28] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955), The Cōlas, p.30
[29] Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N. (2003), History of South India – Ancient Medieval & Modern p.32
[30] Sashtri, K.A.N, A History of South India, pp 109–112
[31] ibid p 113
[32] Vacek, J. 2013, Old Tamil Kings and Chieftains as Described in the Sangam Literature, p335 footnote 16.
[33] ibid p334
[34] ibid
[35] Ibid p335
[36] ibid
[37] ibid
[38] ibid p335 footnote 16
[39] Ibid p.336
[40] Vacek, J. 2013, Old Tamil Kings and Chieftains as Described in the Sangam Literature, p336.
[41] ibid
[42] ibid
[43] https://cbc.gov.in/cbcdev/cholas/cholas-story.html
[44] Beaujard, P., The Worlds of the Indian Ocean, Chapter: India: From the Chola Empire to the Delhi Sultanate. (n.d.) (pp. 216–251).
[45] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta, 1955, The Cōlas
[46] ibid p448
[47] ibid
[48] Ibid p186
[49] ibid
[50] Monier-Williams p794
[51] Ibid p496
[52] Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta, 1955, The Cōlas p144
[53] Sharma, T. R 1989, p50
[54] Maity, K., 1975 The Imperial Guptas and Their Times p2
[55] Ibid p17
[56] Ibid
[57] Ibid p12
[58] Ibid p13
[59] Princep, J. 1838, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, v7 no. 75 p278
[60] Maity, K., 1975 The Imperial Guptas and Their Times p20
[61] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Maharaja.” Encyclopedia Britannica, December 27, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/maharaja.
[62] Maity, K., 1975 The Imperial Guptas and Their Times p21
[63] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Maharaja.” Encyclopedia Britannica, December 27, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ma17haraja.
[64] Maity, K., 1975, The Imperial Guptas and Their Times p88
[65] ibid
[66] Ibid p97
[67] ibid
[68] Monier Williamsp112
[69] Ibid p1093
[70] Monier-Williams p794
[71] Ibid p1181
[72] Ibid p496
[73] Ibid p855
[74] Schimmel, A., Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980
[75] Masoumi, Mohsen, & Shirazi, Saeid. (2013). Relations Between Delhi Sultans and Abbasid Caliphs. Tarikh Wa Tamaddun-I Islami, 9(17), 117-134. SID. https://sid.ir/paper/157233/en
[76] Upal, M. A., & Cusack, C. M. (Eds.). (2021). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. P23 Brill. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbv8
[77] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “ʿAbbasid caliphate“. Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Mar. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Abbasid-caliphate. Accessed 29 April 2024.
[78] Banerji, S.K., Badshah H., Milford H, Oxford University Press, 1938 p22
[79] Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain, The Administration of Sultanate of Delhi, 1942 p7
[80] Ibid p63
[81] ibid
[82] Ibid p103
[83] Ibid p91
[84] Mahajan, VD, History of Medieval India, S. Chand Publishing, 1988 p328
[85] Ibid p363
[86] ibid
[87] This is not explicitly shown in the literature, but an approximate feminization.
[88] See footnote 87
[89] See footnote 87
[90] See footnote 87
[91] Thackston, W. M., Jr. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Modern Library, 2007 p. xlvi.
[92] Ibid p.xxvi
[93] ibid
[94] ibid
[95] Faruqui, Munis D. The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504-1719. Cambridge University Press, 2012, p24
[96] Aftab, Tahera. Inscribing South Asian Muslim Women: An Annotated Bibliography & Research Guide. BRILL, 2008. p66
[97] Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1993, p146
[98] ibid
[99] Ibid p148
[100] Ibid p146
[101] Monier-Williams p21
[102] Ibid p581
[103] Ibid p872
[104] Ibid p177
[105] Ibid p227
[106] Ibid p.404
[107] Dallapiccola, A.L, Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend,2002
[108] Monier-Williams p.426
[109] https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38136
[110] Leslie, J., Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women p.120
[111] Ibid p.588
[112] https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095821730
[113] Monier-Williams p634
[114] Ibid p751
[115] Ibid p767
[116] Ibid p794
[117] Ibid p874
[118] Ibid p874
[119] Ibid p879
[120] Ibid p930
[121] Dowson p339
[122] Monier-Williams p1181
[123] Ibid p1187